3 The King looks for his Swedish officers (Krol szwedzki oficerow swych szuka); Despair of the Swedish king (Desperatia krola szweckiego)- 1657. The author of these two poems is the famous Belarusian and Russian writer Simiaon Polatski (Samuil Petrovski-Sitnianivich, 1629. Polatsak- 1680. Moscow). He was polyglot (wrote in four languages) and he entered the history of Belarus as a model of political and religious conformist. He was Orthodox by birth, but entered the Vilna Jesuitical Academy, where he adopted Catholicism in accordance with Byzantine ceremony. When the war with Russia start Polatski returned to his native town and took Orthodox again. He organised the solemn meeting of the Russian tsar Aleksei Mikhailovich. When he moved to Moscow he became of the main ideologist of seizure of all formed Orthodox lands. He became the personal teacher of Peter I . But during the Belarusian period Polatski was absolutely loyal to Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. For instance, there has been recently discovered a poem-epitaph, belonging to Polatski in which the Russian troops are treated rather negatively.7 „The Swedish poems” of Polatski are not original. They are based on popular in Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth anonymous „anti-Swedish satire”. Like the Polish authors Polatski writes his verses in form of a dialogue between the Swedish king Charles X and his generals and allies. Only real historical personages and facts are used. But unlike the Polish variants Polatski didn’t criticise the pro-Swedish policy of Janush and Bahuslau Radzivill, although they are mentioned in poetry. The hero of the poems the Swedish king Charles X considers the under-estimation of Polish force, anti-Swedish revolt in Samogitia, treachery of fortune:

I should not have underestimated the Poles
GDL was even besieged
Janush Radzivill was our ally together with Samogitia,
Who recognised us a king but then whipped my people
They not only renounced their oath,
but also imposed Russians on my head.
I wanted to be the king of two states,
and Lithuania was to be mine,
But fortune betrayed me.
I wanted to get smb else’s, but I’ve lost my own…
This is God’s punishment.

4. The sketch of home misfortunes (Abrys domowej nieszczesliwosci). 1721. The author of this almost unknown work is a Greek-Catholic monk Jan Aleszkouski from Vitsebsk. In fact it is the Belarusian view on all events of the Great Northern War. Aleszkouski writes a lot about the split within the Belarusian nobility into the Swedish and Russian parties, the hatred of the Russian general Aleksej Menshikov towards the Greek-Catholic Church. We know that 75% of Belarusians belonged to its Church in 18th century. Also he noted that Swedes didn’t justify Belarusian hopes. It was Aleszkouski, who for the first time mentioned the folk proverb, reflecting the situation of the Great Northern War. Later it was excluded from all publications of the Belarusian folklore of the Soviet period:

From there Swedes, from there Russians
There is nowhere to go from this great misfortune.

5. Chronicle of Mahileu. (Kroynika) The events during 8.07. -5.08.1708.

The author of this chronicle Trafim Surta described in details the monthly stay of the Swedish troops headed by Charles XII in Mahileu. The chronicle is a historical document, but included not only facts but also some legends and stories about Swedes in it. The personality of Charles XII was very popular in the European folklore and literature of the 18th century.8 There exist unique legends about him. The Surta’s description of Charles XII appearance is very interesting:

He was seen by our townspeople and each time he was wearing one and the same dress and was riding on the same horseback. He used to stay not in the castle, but among ordinary soldiers in their camp.

So, King’s behaviour was typical of Protestant ethics and it was approved by thrifty Belarusian burghers. The Middle Age conception of the monarch power as guarantor of justice is reflected in the legend „The horse of the Swedish king”. According it Charles XII, Lutheran, who rejected the cult of icons respects them. Once knew that the Swedish soldiers used icons, building the bridge he ordered „to hang two guilty soldiers for this evil deed and the icons were put into an empty cloister. So, the Swedish king defends foreign objects of worship, but put his own soldiers to death. The legend-forecast about Charles’s death in distant Norway is remarkable too. The topic of the Swedish witchcraft, which popular in Belarusian folklore, enters for the first time into literature:

After the war our peasants were looking for some profit, once they came upon a pit on the battlefield, which was full of crops. They continued digging and suddenly saw the Swede with protruding eyes, lying in the crops. The peasant burnt this sorcerer with the crops at a crossroads. Everybody in the land, which the Swede had passed, was suffering from hunger.

THE NEW BELARUSIAN LITERATURE

The situation in Belarus in the 19th century was very difficult for the historical prose. The Belarusian history was mainly preserved and interpreted in folklore. The first „History of Belarus”, written by the Belarusian for the Belarusians, was published only in 1910. That’s why, the very folklore becomes the source of ideas, themes, subjects of historical literature.9 So, Vintsent Dunin-Martsinkievich underlined this connection in the preface to his poem „Liucynka or the Swedes in Lithuania”:

When I bought my little estate in Luicynka, I was interested in its history when I examined it. That’s why i tried to make inquiries about the historical legends of this district-and practically everybody informed me, that during the Swedes and Charles XII invasion their cloister and the church were ruined and the monks were tormented because of their refusal to show the place where treasures were hidden.

The Belarusian authors, writing in the genre of historical prose, were in very difficult situation because of tsarist Russian censorship. People still remembered the wars with Russia. For example, Amstsislaul’ tragedy. This town was destroyed by the Russian troops in 1654. It was killed then from 15 thousand people (according to the Russian sources) to 50000 townspeople (according to the Belarusian sources). The fresco with the picture of this tragedy, so called „Trubetskoj slaughter” has been preserved by a miracle in Amstsislaul’ Catholic church. It was good known about Mahileu tragedy (1708), about the destruction by Peter I of the Cathedral in Polatsak, the first temple in Belarus (1705) and murders of 5 monks. But the authors couldn’t use these facts in literature.

On contrary, Sweden in 19th century was further and became peaceful country, had not active Eastern policy. That’s why everybody used ideologically safe „Swedish theme”.

6. Navahradski temple. 1819. The author of this ballad was famous Belarusian writer Jan Chachot, one of the nearest friends of Adam Mitskievich. Apart from literature Chachot had collected and published four volumes of Belarusian folk song. He is the author of one of the first scientific works about Belarusian language. In 1823 he was arrested by the Russian police and exited to the Ural. He came back only in 1841. While studying in Navaharadak gymnasium, Chachot began interested in the Belarusian folklore. As Ihnat Damejka later recollected:

Two of our students (Chachot and Mitskievich) became attached to our Lithuanian (here Belarusian) customs and people even in their youth. Our town (Navaharadak) differed a little from our villages and estates in spirit and poetry. Townspeople’s life was more like that of peasant. Friends visited church feasts, rural weddings, harvest holiday, funerals. Rural house and folk song developed their talent , Adam quickly reached summit of fame, Jan remained devoted to popular culture.10

The analysis of the our ballad and folk legend shows Chacot’s creative method. The author modifies the folk myth in accordance with his own system of values. Chachot preserved the image of the Swede-witch, yet pushing into the foreground her love with the commandant of Navahradak temple. The image of the Swedes is traditionally negative:

There were puffs of smoke over the city
Our people were killed by the bloody Swede
They must have had hard hearts,
These north hyenas.

In the opposition „one’s own-smb.else’s” Chachot doesn’t admit the destruction of the positive stereotype of „one’s own”. He stresses the fact that the commandant of the temple, who betrayed Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, loving the Swedish woman , was stranger:

I don’t know, where he comes from
He is unlikely to be our Lithuanian, not Poles

As far as historical sources are concerned, they are not criticised. The history, based on folklore, acquires features of myth. Charles X is mentioned in the ballad instead of Charles XII. But there were no Swedes in Navahradak in the middle of the 17th century. They came only in 1706. According to the ballad the temple was destroyed by the Swedes. All the commentaries in the poem evidently display it. In reality the temple was destroyed by the Russian troops in 1660. The whole ballad is saturated with sharp irony of „the forgotten history”:

You can see only the framework of the temple
from afar and below-one cannon.

From the commentaries it is impossible to recognise the exact legend, which is the basis of this poem. I managed to find the publication of this legend:

The temple consisted of seven towers, each of which had several gun. There was a deep moat around the temple, which is dry now. When the Swedes entered the temple the child of one Swede (soldier’s maid) fell from the bridge and drowned. In despair the Swede-witch cursed water, which soon disappeared.11

This is the theme about the Swedish witchcraft, which was popular in Belarusian folklore. According to people’s views, the sources is often „smb.else’s man”. Some unusual profession (miller, blacksmith), in our case some other ethnicity let consider such people sorceress. 12

7. Lucynka or the Swedes in Lithuania (Lucynka, czyli Szwedzi na Litwie. Opowiadania historyczne). 1861. The author of this poem is the greatest Belarusian writer of the 19th century, Vincent Dunin-Martsinkievich. He is known in the Belarusian literature by a number of wonderful comedies, and as a first translator of the Adam Mickiewicz’s poem „Pan Tadeusz” into Belarusian. The publishing of this poem was confiscated by the Russian policy. Dunin-Martsinkievich was arrested during the revolt 1863-1864.

„Lucynka or the Swedes in Lithuania” is the last book of Dunin-Martsinkievich. The Belarusian folk legends about Swedes and noble verbal tradition became the basis of the poem:

For two centuries we remember
the truth of Suderman’s invasion.

The author good reproduced the atmosphere of the Belarusian noble meeting („sojmik”) before Great Northern War, namely dispute whom to support in war Charles XII or Peter I. Who support Russians said:

The Swedish bird of prey
circles over Lithuania and Poland
pecks, tears their hearts with its claws,
drinks their blood.
And nevertheless calls itself „The saviours of Poland”

According to the opposition „one’s own-smb else’s” cruel Swedes are set off against generous Lithuanian nobility. The author inserts also the theme of a joust between Belarusian knight Uladzislau Daliva and Swedish officer Lars. In this case the image of Swede is devoid of negative. But naturally their „own” wins in this fight:

Daliva meanwhile directed,
his blow to Lars open chest,
He fell like an oak mortally wounded.
Letting his tempered sword slip out of his hands

It should be noted that this plot, the defence of the cloister-holy place against the heretical Swedes, was very popular in Polish culture, especially the history about cloister in Chenstokhova, which was known by every Catholic in Poland and Belarus. Dunin-Martsinkievich used this theme for the construction of the regional tradition.

There three Swedish personages in this poem at once. Firstly is the commander of all the Swedish troops in Lithuania, who the author call Suderman. The commentators consider him to be an invented personage. Maybe his prototype was the Swedish king Charles IX Suderman, a brother of Polish king Sigismund Vaza. But we know that he there was not in Belarus. Practically Suderman is meant instead of Charles XII:

Suderman master on our land
He burns estates, robs our people,
Wants to give us a new king Leszczynski

The second Swede in poem is the real historical person: general Carl Gustaf Creutz (1660-1728). By order of Charles XII he and his detachments destroyed a number of estates in West Belarus in 1706, which belonged to Radzivill. The aim of this policy was to make Radzivill support the Swedes. It worked well. Dunin-Martsinkievich underlines Creutz’s persistence:

Day and night he fires
on the walls and towers of the cloister

8. Ballad about Charles XII (Дума а Каралю XII). About 1863. The author of this poem is one of the most interesting Belarusian poets of the 19th century, Alhierd Abukhovich. He was born in Slutsak district, one of the centres of Reformation in Belarus, in the family of nobleman-Calvinists. He finished Slutsak Protestant gymnasium and studied at the Geneva University. He was named by his parents in honour of the outstanding Grand Duke of Lithuania Alhierd. Abukhovich was one of the first local authors, who called himself not „Lithuanian” but „Belarus”. As a member of the Belarusian- Lithuanian revolt against tsarist Russia 1863-1864 headed by Belarusian Kostus Kalinouski, he was exiled to Siberia. After his return, Abukhovich gave out all his lands gratis to the peasants. That is why he acquired the reputation „mad” among local nobility. As a Protestant and Belarusian patriot he was rejected by the Polish nobility and the Russians officials.

„Ballad about Charles XII” was written in Belarusian in 1863, but published only in 1916. Only in 1994 the Belarusian scholar Juras Patsiupa paid attention to this forgotten poem for the first time, that it should take more prominent place in the Belarusian literature.13 I take the view, that unpopularity of this poem is explained mainly by the difficulty of its meaning. It is written in Aesopian language. This work is devoted to the events of the Great Northern War. But the names of three heroes: Charles XII, Peter I and Stanislav Leszczynski- are ciphered. Moreover, the author uses the images of the Belarusian folklore, which are practically forgotten today. The first lines of the poem are following:

The dawns of the North burn with blood,
The show dales are an fire.

This is not just metaphor. It’s the forgotten Belarusian ancient sign:

On the eve of the great war when the skies become dark, the northern side becomes red like blood. This redness gradually fills the whole space. There is noise, crack and thunder in the sky at this moment.14

The main hero is Charles XII, but Abukhovich creates absolutely new for the Belarusian literature image of the Swedish king. If Peter I is shown as „murderer of peoples”, Stanislau Leszczynski- adventurer, Charles XII is the ideal knight, who struggled for independence and freedom of nations. According to Abukhovich Charles XII longed for „people’s happiness”, „yours brave heart beat for their fame.”

The Swedish defeat near Poltawa is a national catastrophe for Belarus. Belarus was doomed to slavery, the annexation of the Russia and Belarus is meant in the poem. The author curses „the field of Poltawa”. It is wonder, but Abukhovich opinion contradicts that of the contemporary Swedish historians who insist that the defeat of their country was blessing. Sweden was devoid of Global illusions, the country rejected „the Eastern Policy”, concentrating only on inner affairs.15

Abukhovich was sure that Charles’s name would be celebrated by the descendants. In reality, this king is unpopular in modern Sweden. But the folk memory of the Swedes has preserved positive remembrance about Charles XII. For instant one of the heroes of Astrid Lindgren story „Emil i Lönneberga” remembers how Charles XII had sawed people in province Smoland from wolves’ invasion.

The last lines of our ballad appeal to rebel, uniting the destiny of Belarus and the image of Charles XII. For the radical Belarusian elite of the 19th century the image of Charles XII like and Napoleon was the symbol of struggle against the Russian Empire.

Ballad about Charles XII

The dawns of the North burn with blood,
The show dales are on fire
The soothsayers foreshadow great trouble,
Looking at the northern lights.

There are three heroes-and everyone leaves his shelter,
Being sought by turbulent thoughts.
They look at the north uneasily,
They ponder over their lot.

The first (Leszczynski) longed for the king’s crown.
He despaired the descendants honour,
His only desire was the crown gold,
On his useless temples.

The second (Peter I) was born in the North to be a king,
He nevertheless an emperor wanted to be,
In spite of the church and people’s protest,
He ordered the Homeland to change.

The third (Charles XII) on the highest rock standing,
Where only eagles could built their nests,
Thought how to overcome cruel fate,
And get over all the hindrances on his way.

The dawns covered the skies, water and soil
Acquired red colour
And everywhere will be your monarch name
Glorified by the people.

Fortunately, your brave heart
beat for their fame,
Curse it, field of Poltawa,
and you: people’s murderer.

The dawns grew dark, the glory faded,
Belarus is held in captivity now,
Rise the people’s hope,
From the king’s grave, from the fields of Poltawa.

The analysis of Belarusian literature of the 19th centuries were obliged to rest upon folklore And on this basis they created the image of the Swedes . Side by side with historical truth „unscientific” universal model of „smb else’s” ethnos, created in people’s culture plays the dominant role . The image of the Swede differs a little from the image of a Frenchman, typical of Belarusian folk culture in the 19th century after the war in 1812.

Belarusian conflicts, disappearance of nation from the cultural map of Europe, which took place in 18th -19th centuries led to negative consequences, still existing. The historical tradition and people’s memory have been destroyed. Writers of the 19th century had an advantage. The historical memory was reflected in folklore.

But historical events are mythologised in folklore. The conception of Belarusian-Swedish contacts, built on the basis of myth, exist today. These unscientific views have great influence on public consciousness. The Swedes are accused of all the evils of the Small and Great Northern Wars. Anti-Swedish, anti-western rhetoric offers the myth about everlasting friendship with East neighbour. For example, the modern composition in Regional Museum of Mahileu is significant in this respect. There is not a hint of the total destruction of the big city by the Russian troops on the 8th of September, 1708. The Swedes are supposed to have done it. The picture „Flight of the Swedish king” is exhibited there. Charles XII seems miserable, escaping in a boat from the risen in rebellion against the Swedes town. In reality there was not revolt. Charles XII and his troops calmly left the town moving through two bridges, built by the Swedes. Moreover, townspeople met Charles XII as their lord with bread and salt and presented him with „the keys from the town on a red towel”.

The exist myth about total Swedish destruction of churches and cloisters in Belarus, which are based on folk legends and literary images. But they represent into scientific editions. For example, the Swedes are accused of the temple in Navaharadak, Catholic church in Pinsk, cloister of Cartesians in Biaroza, church in Drysviaty and so on. But there are only myth, contradiction reality. However there are clear reasons for their cultivation in modern Belarusian regime. Unfortunately, the Belarusian writers of the 19th century played a certain role in this process as well.

There is no foundation of the nation without the destruction of these myths. The truth is in fact, that the Belarusian people in the Great Northern War happened to be between two fires. The Swedes destroyed the estates belong to Radzivill in the West Belarus. The Russians destroyed all cities in East Belarus, burnt all villages because of their tactical schemes to stop the advantage of the Swedish troops. As a result, the population in Belarus reduced by 35% by the end of the war.16

From there Swedes, from there Russians
There is nowhere to go from this eternal misfortune?

Рэзюмэ

У артыкуле разглядаецца гісторыя фармаваньня й разьвіцьця стэрэатыпу Швэдаў у беларускай літаратуры. Падкрэсьлена, што падставай дзеля яго стварэньня былі непасрэдныя беларуска-швэдзкія кантакты ў 16-18 ст.ст. Спэцыфічныя ўмовы кантактаў (войны) абумовілі ў асноўным адмоўны вобраз Швэдаў. На гэта паўплываў і шэраг суб’ектыўных прычынаў.

Па-першае, этнічныя стэрэатыпы іншага народу ў народнай культуры наагул больш нэгатыўныя, чымсьці пазытыўныя. Па-другое, сваю ролю адыграла цалком адмоўнае ў Рэчы Паспалітай 17-18 ст.ст. стаўленьне да пратэстантаў, якіх лічылі здраднікамі, хаўрусьнікамі швэдзкіх акупантаў у „патоп”. У адрозьненьне ад Польшчы, вобраз Швэда ў беларускай сьведамасьці ў Вялікім Княстве Літоўскім не ўсюды так адназначна быў адмоўным. Пазытыўным у пратэстанцкіх асяродзьдзях.

„Швэдзкая тэма” ў новай беларускай літаратуры (19 ст.) была цалком заснаваная на фальклёры. Не было ўжо таго непасрэднага кантакту між Швэдамі і Беларусамі.

Народная прыказка, якая адлюстроўвае сапраўдны погляд Беларусаў на падзеі зьвязаныя тымі войнамі: „Стуль Маскаль, а стуль Швэды, недзе дзецца з вялікае беды”.

Andrej Kotljarczuk. Was born in 1968. Historian, a candidate for doctor of philosophy at the Baltic and East European Graduate School in the University College of South Stockholm (Södertörns Högskola). Specializes in the Belarusian-Swedish and the Belarusian-Russian cultural contacts in Early Modern Time. The author a monograph „The festival culture in towns of Russia and Belarus of the 17th century” (St. Petersberg. 2001), more than 20 articles. His thesis concerns the political and cultural contacts between Belarus and Sweden in 17th –18th centuries.

1 See: Rich, V. 1984. Jewish themes and characters in Belorussian texts. London; Schmidt, J. 1991. Funkcje i wlasciwosci stereotypow etnicznych, refleksje teoretyczne. Acta Universitatis Wratislaviensis. 1136. Historia LXXIX. 6-11.
2 Belarus was an integral part of the European civilisation, occupying the eastern boundaries of Europe. All Belarusian lands were the part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania at that time . In GDL proper the Belarusian nation was formed. Belarusians were the majority of the population of GDL, besides them, there also lived Balts-Lithuanians, Jews, Poles, German. The official and literary language was old Belarusian. Belarusian nobility held the most important state posts. In the capital of the GDL, Vilnia (now Vilnius) Belarusians made the majority of the population during this period as well. Vilnia was the centre of old Belarusian culture. The very name „Belarus” didn’t exist then, the country was called Lithuania and Belarusians – „Lithuanians”. Historical Lithuania was Slavonic State mostly with the domination of Belarusian and Polish culture. Nowadays the difference between historical Lithuania and modern Lithuanian Republic is unknown in Europe.
3 Iванова, Л. 1997. Рефармацыйны рух на Беларусi. Беларускi гiстарычны часопiс. № 2 (18). 58.
4 Weingart, M. 1926. Manualnik Grigorija Kujbedy z roku 1652. Bratislava. 14.
5 Котлярчук, А. 1999. Шведы в этнической истории и преданиях белорусов. Скандинавские чтения 1998 года. Санкт-Петербург. 187-194.
6 Libiszowska, Z. 1957. Antyszwedzka literatura propagandowa z czasów „Potopu”. Polska w okresie drugiej wojny północnej 1655-1660. 481-527.
7 Марзалюк, I. 2001. Невядомая спадчына Сiмяона Полацкага. Край. Магiлёў. 65-71.
8 Котлярчук, А. 2001. Карл XII у гiсторыi i паданнях Магiлева. Мiнулая i сучасная гiсторыя Магiлева. Магiлёў. 95-99.
9 Юрэвiч, Л. 1999. Камэнтары. Лiтаратуразнаўчыя артыкулы. Менск. 8-9.
10 Stankiewicz, S. Pierwiastki białoruskie w polskiej poezji romantycznej. Część 1. (do roku 1830). Wilno. 5-6.
11 Котлярчук, А. 1999.
12 Никифировский, Н. 1897. Простонародные приметы и поверья, суеверные обряды и обычаи, легенды, сказания о лицах и местах Витебской Белоруссии. Витебск. 282-283.
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