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JAN BAUDOUIN DE COURTENAY AND HIS ATTITUDE TOWARDS BELARUS AND BELARUSIANS
Bazyli Białokozowicz
“Jan Baudouin de Courtenay was one of the most distinguished linguists in general, and certainly the most illustrious linguist in the whole history of Poland.” In these words Henryk Uaszyn characterized his mentor and teacher1. Jan Baudouin de Courtenay was primarily one of the founding fathers of modern linguistics. He made a lasting contribution to phonology and foreshadowed the development of mathematical linguistics, pioneered scientific approach to contrastive and applied linguistics, inspired new theoretical and cognitive trends in lexicology, semantics, onomastics and anthroponymy, as well as in dialectology, sociolinguistics and logopedics. It would be difficult to overstress his personal role and the significance of his works for the development of Indoeuropean linguistics, and particularly for the linguistic study of Slavonic languages, for general theory of language and for linguistic theory of writing systems.
Let us retrace the curriculum vitae of the eminent scholar. He was born to a polonized family of French origin. Kazimierz Nitsch states that his French ancestor from the eighteenth century „served as a colonel of Foreign Guards at the court of king Augustus II”2. The scholar never denied his French ancestry, but he also consistently emphasized his Polish identity. Born on March 13th, 1845 in Radzymin near Warsaw as the oldest son in a large family (altogether 12 siblings), Jan Baudouin de Courtenay was the son of Aleksander (officer of the Polish Army in the November 1830 uprising against Russian rule and a geometrician) and Jadwiga (nee Dobrzyska), who did their utmost to secure proper education for their fistborn. At first, he was tutored at home and only later, in 1857, took up regular studies in the third grade of grammar school in Warsaw. The school subjects of his particular interest were mathematics and (as one of the ancillary courses) Latin. After finishing Preparatory Courses instituted by margrave Aleksander Wielkopolski, in order to prepare candidates for university studies, in 1862 Jan Baudouin de Courtenay enrolled at the Faculty of Philology and History of the Central School in Warsaw, i.e. Warsaw University. As an outstanding graduate he received in 1866 the degree of magister (M.A.) and a government grant to pursue further studies abroad, in order to prepare himself for the degree of university professor. In the years 1866-1868 he broadened his academic expertise at the universities of Prague, Jena and Berlin. In 1868 he published in Leipzig his dissertation entitled Einige Fälle der Wirkung der Analogie in der polnischen Declination (Several Instances of Analogy at Work in Polish Declination) in the renowned series of academic publications Beiträge zur vergleichenden Sprachforschung (vol. 6). On the basis of this work he received in Leipzig the title of Doctor of Philosophy (Ph. D.). Later, after a brief stay in Warsaw and St. Petersburg, he conducted fieldwork research in Italy and Slovenia on the phonetics of Rezian dialects of Slovenian.
Wherever Baudouin sojourned, his attention was drawn to absolutely everything: the problems of the country, province or region in which he was staying, its linguistic, cultural and social situation, spiritual life, freedom of word, human and citizen’s rights. As a result of his fieldwork research in northern Italy on Slovenian dialects, in 1875 he presented in St. Petersburg his new magnum opus, a doctoral dissertation entitled (Account of the phonetics of Rezian dialects). Having obtained the degree of doctor in comparative linguistics, he could now embark on an illustrious university career.
In the years 1875-1883 Baudouin de Courtenay worked at the University of Kazan where he earned well deserved fame as the founding father of the Kazan School of Linguistics. Numerous universities of the Russian Empire offered employment to this outstanding scholar and linguist, including the renowned University of Dorpat, later known as the University of Yuriyev (at present Tartu, Estonia). In order to be closer to Poland and Warsaw, Baudouin accepted the position of the head of the Chair of Comparative Grammar of Slavonic Languages at that university. Furthermore, his stay at the University of Dorpat was an occasion to broaden studies on Baltic languages, and particularly on Lithuanian.
After World War I Baudouin returned to Poland in 1918 and accepted the position of the head of the Chair of Comparative Linguistics at the University of Warsaw (1918-1929). He died in Warsaw on November 3, 1929, and was buried at the Reformed Evangelical cemetery.
Jan Baudouin de Courtenay devoted much of his attention to the mutual relationships and affinities between East Slavonic languages and the specific characteristic features of each of them (Great Russian, Belarusian and Little Russian, i.e. Ukrainian). Due to a certain coincidence he became particularly interested in the Belarusian-Polish ethnographic and cultural borderlands. I have in mind specifically his publication entitled Pieni biaorusko-polskie z powiatu sokólskiego guberni grodzieskiej (Belarusian-Polish songs from the Sokóka district of Hrodna province)3 and his work as the editor and publisher of Pieni biaoruskie z powiatu dzinieskiego guberni wileskiej (Belarusian songs from the Dzisna district of the Vilnius province) collected and recorded by the Czech Slavist and poet Adolf erný4, with Baudouin’s „Dodatek do Pieni biaorusko-polskich z powiatu sokólskiego” (Appendix to Belarusian-Polish songs from the Sokóka district)5. This problem deserves separate notice and the author of this article intends to prepare an appropriate article in the nearest future. In the meantime I wish to draw the readers’ attention to a commentary by Baudouin de Courtenay, or his „Objanienia wstpne” (Introductory explanations), where he writes:
„I picked up these songs from the lips of the nanny of my children, Józefa Borkowska (aged circa 30), residing in Dorpat for four years, who originally came from Horczaki, a village in Sokóka district, populated by small gentry. There is a whole assortment of such villages populated by petty gentrymen who are officially included in the rolls of citizens of small towns located in their vicinity. In such manner, Józefa Borkowska was also officially classified as a citizen of the town of Odelsk. This small gentry uses both languages at home, Polish as well as Belarusian. Some use Polish more often, others Belarusian. In any case, Belarusian seems to prevail in these regions. In spite of this, small gentry tends to consider itself Polish, and not only on account of religion, for they are almost all Catholic, but also because of the traditions of Polish gentry. As far as I can tell on the basis of contacts with several individuals born in this region, the Polish language used there is quite standard, though the local population also speaks quite good „peasant” language, i.e. Belarusian. Although the home language used there (in proportion of about two thirds) is Belarusian, at more important social events, like weddings, petty gentry tends to use exclusively Polish. Some of them can also write quite acceptable Polish.
Trying to put a strict ethnographic label to this territory, we should call it a mixed, Polish-Belarusian territory.
Such mixed character is also mirrored in the songs enclosed here. Some of them sound purely Belarusian, others Polish and yet others present a weird mixture of both languages.”6 I will quote only the first stanzas of the first (Belarusian) and the last (Belarusian-Polish) songs:
E’j, pajdú ja na kráj łuha
Tám moj miłyj haré płuham,
A jón haré, a já płaczu,
Darmo swajé lieta traczu.
Swajé lieta patráciła,
Niemá tahó, sztó lubiła.
Ják nie byłó, tó j nie budzie
Tahó, sztó lubici budzie7.
(Hey, I will go to the edge of the meadow
There my beloved is toiling with the plough,
And he’s toiling, and I’m crying,
In vain I’m losing my years.
I lost my years,
The one is gone, who I loved,
Just as there was none, so there will be none
Of the one, who will love me.)
..........................................
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- „Kasiulu majá, zarenczónaja,
Czego chodzisz po sadeńku, zasmencónaja?
Czahó ty chodzisz, czahó ty nudzisz?
Czamú że ty mnié nie skażesz, kahó ty lubisz?”8
(- „Kathy my, fiancé,
Why are you walking in the orchard so sad?
Why are you walking around, why are you being a nuisance?
Why don’t you tell me, who you are in love with?)
It may be added that Baudouin marked all the stress patterns and prepared instructions, how the words should be pronounced, and furthermore added notes and melodies in notation prepared by Elli de Schoultz-Adaiewski.
On the basis of his observations of Belarusian ethnographic material, Jan Baudouin de Courtenay arrived at the conclusion that it is characterized by an absolute confusion of religious and national identuty, whose close identification was in his opinion a serious mistake. Taking into account the above observation, he wrote: „Although the local villagers and parishioners tend to identify „Polishness” with „Catholicism”, „Germanness” with „Protestantism” and „Russianness” with „Greek Orthodoxy” [...], it does not require much effort, even on the part of the narrow minded and quite unenlightened, to understand that even a non-Catholic could be Polish, while Catholicism is not totally located within the confines of the Polish village”9.
Baudouin treated religion and creed as a personal and exceedingly intimate matter. „What right has any ruffian from the street to rummage in my soul and to paw around for my religious affiliation? Hands off! And that goes also for my beliefs, for what I hold holy, for what I cherish in the depths of my spirit! [...] I personally treat any question about my religious affiliation as a personal insult, as humiliation, as an offence against human dignity”10.
Such attitude was a consequence of his humanistic convictions, whose inherent attributes comprised tolerance, equal rights and freethinking. With such ideals, he felt obliged to defend freedom of conscience, word and print, including also „all believers and unbelievers, as long as they are harassed by police authorities, or by attackers coming from the society at large”11.
In the St. Petersburg Belarusian community composed of adherents of cultural and educational national rebirth, both Orthodox and Catholic, Baudouin enjoyed enormous respect. He was frequently asked for advice, aid in research and consultation. Those who received such assistance from Baudouin included: Bronisaw Epimach-Szypio, custodian of the Library of St. Petersburg University and later of the Academy of Sciences and at the same time lecturer of the Imperial Roman Catholic Seminary in St. Petersburg, as well as Bronisaw Taraszkiewicz, at that time a student of St. Petersburg University, and later author of the first academic grammar of the Belarusian language. Belarusians, like representatives of other national minorities, often visited the hospitable home of the Baudouins in St. Petersburg. Ewelina Maachowska, Baudouin’s daughter, reminisces:
„Like pilgrims to Mecca, representatives of so called national minorities flocked to my father, for he always defended the rights of nations oppressed by alien tyranny. These very often included Belarusians, like the librarian of the Academy of Sciences, who later lived in Minsk, Bronisaw Epimach-Szypio, or the future glory of Belarusian poetry, one of the founding fathers of Belarusian literary language, ucewicz – Janka Kupaa. We didn’t know then, that we were sitting at the same table with someone of that stature. He also frequently exchanged letters with Ivan Franko, Ruthenian. Lithuanians kept inviting father to their lectures, concerts, meetings, exhibitions, for example of the works of iurlionis, and, as I am told, they are grateful even today for my father’s defence of the right of the Lithuanian alphabet to exist in the Russian state”12.
Baudouin de Courtenay, who strongly condemned the official imperial Russian policy of russification of Poles, Belarusians, Ukrainians and Lithuanians, could not accept either attempts to polonize Belarus, Ukraine and Lithuania. „Panpolonism or ultra-Polishness have set before themselves the task of forcing all non-Poles who live among Poles or in, so called, ‘Polish’ lands, to recognize themselves as Poles or to retreat. For example, Ruthenians and Lithuanians are merely ‘ethnographic material’, merely mutum et turpe pecus, who may be granted the privilege of assimilation into Polishness”13. In consequence, Baudouin distinguished two types of patriotism:
„1) The patriotism of hoodlums and international expropriators, that is nationalistic patriotism, with its slogan of ‘national egoism’, slogan of mutual extermination of bipeds differing in creed, language, traditions, convictions, a patriotism which transforms ‘fatherland’ into a prison for convicts, a cage for different species of wild beasts, into hell populated by madmen obsessed with nationalism.
2) Territorial patriotism, under the banner of equal rights for all citizens, a common fatherland for all people of different creeds, different languages, different convictions, under the slogan of solidarity in the name of common work for the benefit of common fatherland, work in the sphere of material possessions and all the things which could be attained here on earth”14.
Accepting this „second, proper patriotism”, Baudouin postulated that officials of state administration ought to know all the languages of a given district, region, province or country, i.e. of the local Fatherland, which is characterised by multi-ethnicity, by cultural and confessional diversity. He predicted recalcitrance not only on the part of the Russian imperial bureaucracy, but also among nationalistically minded Poles. Therefore, he warned:
„Because it is not the population which exists for the officials, but officials for the population, they are obliged to know the languages of all the nationalities which reside in a given administrative unit. In exceptional cases interpreters should be employed for certain languages.
It is quite possible that it might be perceived as demeaning to the noble Polish nation that it is equated in rights with other nations such as Lithuanians, Tartars, Kirghiz, Bashkirs, Estonians, Jews, Buryats, etc. Several days ago I heard one well known Polish scholar seriously express the opinion that the Lithuanian language is suitable only for talking to cows. This gentleman forgot signs so recently posted on the walls of public offices in the „north-western province” (and perhaps lingering there even now), informing that „zdyes po polski govorit’ vospryeshchayetsya” (here it is forbidden to speak in Polish). The gentleman in question treats Lithuanian in the same way his own language was treated by civilizers from the east”15.
Thus, linguistic research sensu stricto is accompanied in Baudouin’s work by in-depth moral and ethical, philosophical, social and political reflection. Also literary masterpieces turn out to provide an invaluable resource, and in particular literary works written in Slavonic languages, which are an excellent expression of Slavonic spirituality. The above thesis finds more than adequate confirmation in numerous, extremely skilfully chosen quotations from the works of Slavonic writers, which may be found in Baudouin’s essays, lectures, both academic and popular, and formal addresses.
In accordance with his deepest convictions, Baudouin advised his readers not to neglect even such diversity, manifestations of uniqueness and time honoured traditions which exist within one and the same language. As an example, he mentions on the one hand Croatians and Serbs, and on the other Catholic and Orthodox Belarusians:
„After all, the existence of two nations, Croatian and Serb, which use languages practically identical from the articulatory and auditory point of view, is explained by the fact that Croatians, who are predominantly Catholic, use the Latin alphabet, modified in accordance with the requirements of West Slavonic languages, while the Serbs, usually Greek Orthodox, use an alphabet derived from the Cyrillic script modified in Russia. Belarusians also fall into two groups, distinct, if only embryonically, in terms of political tendencies depending on whether some of them, being Orthodox, use the Russian alphabet and are drawn towards Russia, while others, as Catholics, used Latin alphabet and were drawn towards, if not Poland, since Poland was at the time nonexistent, at least towards the Polish culture and Polish society. I use the past tense („used”, „were drawn”) because this pertained to the situation that preceded the World War, which brought in its wake fatal results and hence arrested and paralized all symptoms of that sort. Today, instead of human beings with their objectives, we see bipedal creatures, either harassed and terrified, or themselves tormenting other similar creatures”16.
Baudouin discussed the Belarusian question in postwar Polish state against the background of broader national and religious problems. He demanded from the Polish state wise and responsible policy based on noble humanistic principles, and in particular on absolute respect for existing differences. In 1924 he advised and postulated:
„I suppose it is high time to shake hands in agreement, and the first step in this direction ought to be made by the stronger side; in this case it is the governing side, the side of the people who are identified with Polish statehood.
It would be possible to instil Poland in the souls of its citizens of foreign stock, who live on its frontiers, only by:
1) implementation and rigorous maintenance of the principle of equal rights for all citizens, by merciless suppression and eradication of hostile, contemptible treatment and harassment of non-Polish nationalities and non-Catholic religions;
2) resorting to all available means which would improve the welfare of all citizens living on Poland’s frontiers, among which measures an important place should be reserved for the implementation of a reasonable land reform;
3) by totally unhindered propagation of education in all local languages, in accordance with the independently expressed wishes of the local population”17.
Considering the problem of coexistence of different nations and assimilation, Baudouin raises the possibility, on the one hand, of lack of identification with any nationality, and, on the other, of identification with two or more nationalities:
„In conditions where freedom of conscience and respect for human dignity are rigorously upheld, it is quite possible that one might consciously refrain from seeking affiliation to any one nationality, or might equally consciously and emotionally identify with two or more nationalities. [...] When one lives either on the ethnographic borderline between two nations, or in ethnically mixed regions, one may not only use both languages from the very beginning but also participate in the cultural life of both national groups and even love the cultural accomplishments of both nations alike”18Such opinions could only cause perplexity and sharp criticism among nationalistically minded chauvinists.
On the one hand, Baudouin was staunchly against the opinion that Belarusians and Ukrainians are merely „subcategories of Russians and together with them constitute a single Russian family”, while, on the other hand, he was also obstinately against the thesis that they had little in common with Russians, because they comprised distinct and even antagonistic nations with different languages and dissimilar histories. He emphasized their exceptional ethnic and linguistic affinities, which did not preclude their uniqueness and distinctiveness stemming from different historical circumstances. The whole topic obviously needs more detailed discussion which I intend to undertake in the future.
Jan Baudouin de Courtenay was invited to the Congress of Belarusian culture organized in Minsk on November 14-21, 1926. He intended to accept the invitation, since the congress was devoted to Belarusian studies pertaining to linguistics, philology and literary accomplishments, but infirmity of health and old age (he was 81) stood in the way of these plans. Although from afar, he could insightfully evalutate the results of the conference (mainly on the basis of the account provided by professor Józef Gobek, one of the participants). And while his assessment of the academic effects was very positive, he could not suppress the feeling of strong anger caused by the fact that Polish political authorities precluded the participation of Polish Belarusians in the congress (only Father Adam Stankiewicz was allowed to go to Minsk). Overcome with resentment, Baudouin wrote: „They refused to grant their permission to Mr. Taraszkiewicz, the author of one of the best grammars of Belarusian language, they refused their permission also to other scholars and writers, who, induced by their sense of national affiliation, were inclined to participate in this momentous manifestation of national cultural solidarity of all Belarusians”19.
Baudouin further noted that even the authorities of imperial Russia usually consented to the participation of those Polish subjects of the Russian empire, who wanted to express their national unity with Poles living in other parts of Poland living at the time under the yoke of other powers, in national congresses organized in Galicia, the region of Poland under Austrian rule. Therefore he expressed his deploration in the following words:
„When at one of the sessions of the aforementioned Belarusian congress a telegram sent by Mr. Taraszkiewicz and other Belarusian guests invited from Poland was publicly read, in which it was stated that the Polish authorities did not permit them to go to Minsk, the lecture hall resounded with shouts „shame! shame!” and these were followed by other demonstrations of hostility to Poland. And this could hardly be surprising. The congress had a purely cultural character and no one present there intended to play political games. And here, out of the blue, came news about this totally unreasonable decision of the Polish government, which brought to mind the darkest traditions of the «soyuz russkovo naroda» („union of the Russian nation”), except that now «soyuz russkovo naroda» gave way to «soyuz polskovo naroda» („union of the Polish nation”)20.
Overwhelmed with indignance, Baudouin continued:
„The cry „shame!” ought to have been repeated by every citizen of Poland who cares about the interests of his country, who wants to win hearts of others instead of repelling them.
Such unreasonable, irresponsible acts, as the Polish ban on Belarusian participation in a purely cultural congress of all Belarusians, are, in quite objective terms, tantamount to activities detrimental to the Polish state and Polish nation, naturally if this nation wants to live in peace with other nations, with whom its fate has been interwoven for good and ill”21.
Jan Baudouin de Courtenay’s role in the struggle for a civic and open society, both in imperial Russia and later in the Republic of Poland, which had regained its independence, could be hardly overdramatized. To sum up, it must be concluded that Jan Baudouin de Courtenay as a thinker, social activist and journalist was engaged both in the central dilemmas of his epoch and in mundane problems of everyday life. He strongly objected against any form of national exclusiveness and earned himself the reputation of a staunch spokesman for peaceful and brotherly coexistence, cooperation and development of all ethnic groups, nations and nationalities, and in particular Poles, Russians, Belarusians, Ukrainians, Lithuanians, Germans and Jews. And it is absolutely not a coincidence that in 1922 representatives of national minorities in the Polish parliament, after consulting each other, proposed him as their candidate for President of Poland. In the ballot which ensued Baudouin de Courtenay received 105 votes, i.e. 20% of the electoral college, running against four other candidates.22
Translated by Wojciech Kubiński
Bazyli Białokozowicz – Professor, Ph.D. Habil., doctor honoris causa of St. Petersburg University and the University of Nizhniy Novgorod; research in comparative literary studies and specifically in Polish-East Slavonic literary relations and Polish-Slavonic cultural frontiers, Russian literature, Belarusian and Ukrainian literatures; head of the Chair of East Slavonic Literary Studies at Uniwersytet Warmisko-Mazurski (Varmland-Mazurian University) in Olsztyn; fellow of the International Eurasian Academy of Sciences; recipient of numerous honorary awards, including Medal Komisji Edukacji Narodowej (Medal of the Committee of National Education) and honorary title „Zasuony Nowogródczynie” (For Meritorious Services to Navahrudak Province).
1 H. Ułaszyn, Jan Baudouin de Courtenay. Charakterystyka ogólna uczonego i człowieka (1845-1929). Czcionkami Uniwersytetu Poznańskiego [Jan Baudouin de Courtenay. General characterization of a scholar and man (1845-1929). Set in print at the University of Poznań], Poznań 1934, p. 7.
2 Polski Słownik Biografi czny [Polish Biographical Dictionary], vol. I. Nakładem PAU [Printed by PAU], Kraków 1935, p. 359.
3 J. Baudouin de Courtenay, Pieśni białorusko-polskie z powiatu sokólskiego guberni grodzieńskiej [Belarusian-Polish songs from the Sokółka district of Hrodna province], „Zbiór Wiadomości do Antropologii Krajowej” [Collection of Data on National Anthropology], Kraków 1892, vol. XVI, pp. 219-237; also in: Osobne odbicie z tomu XVI. Nakładem Akademii Umiejętności [A separate reprint of volume XVI. Printed by Academy of Skills], Kraków 1892, p. 20.
4 A. Černý, Pieśni białoruskie z powiatu dziśnieńskiego guberni wileńskiej [Belarusian songs from the Dzisna district of the Vilnius province], „Zbiór Wiadomości do Antropologii Krajowej” [Collection of Data on National Anthropology], Kraków 1894, vol. XVIII, pp. 192-224; also in: Osobne odbicie z tomu XVIII. Nakładem Akademii Umiejętności [A separate reprint of volume XVIII. Printed by Academy of Skills], Kraków 1894, p. 42.
5 J. Baudouin de Courtenay, „Dodatek do Pieśni białorusko-polskie z powiatu sokólskiego guberni grodzieńskiej” [Appendix to Belarusian-Polish songs from the Sokółka district], „Zbiór Wiadomości do Antropologii Krajowej” [Collection of Data on National Anthropology], Kraków 1894, vol. XVIII, pp. 225-231; also in: Osobne odbicie z tomu XVIII [A separate reprint of volume XVIII], and in another reprint: Pieśni białoruskie z powiatu dziśnieńskiego guberni wileńskiej [Belarusian songs from the Dzisna district of the Vilnius province], Kraków 1894, p. 35-41.
6 J. Baudouin de Courtenay, Pieśni białorusko-polskie z powiatu sokólskiego guberni grodzieńskiej [Belarusian-Polish songs from the Sokółka district of Hrodna province]. Nakładem Akademii Umiejętności [Printed by the Academy of Skills], Kraków 1892, pp. 1-2.
7 Ibidem, pp. 2-3.
8 Ibidem, p. 20.
9 J. Baudouin de Courtenay, Dzieła wybrane [Selected works], vol. VI, PWN, Warszawa 1983, p. 221.
10 J. Baudouin de Courtenay, Tolerancja. Równouprawnienie. Wolnomyślicielstwo. Wyznanie paszportowe, Biblioteka Stowarzyszenia Wolnomyślicieli Polskich [Tolerance. Equal rights. Freethinking. Passport creed, Library of the Association of Polish Freethinkers], no. 1, Warszawa 1923, p. 18.
11 Ibidem, p. 16.
12 E. Małachowska, Zarys życia na tle domu i dalszego otoczenia, maszynopis [An outline of life against the background of home and more remote surroundings, typescript], p. 167.
13 J. Baudouin de Courtenay, O zjeździe slawistów i o panslawizmie «platonicznym». Dwa odczyty wygłoszone w Krakowie 16 i 18 czerwca 1903 na korzyść Towarzystwa Pomocy Naukowej dla Polek im. Kraszewskiego [On congress of Slavists and „Platonic” panslavism. Two lectures presented in Cracow on June 16 and 18, 1903, for the benefi t of Kraszewski Society of Academic Assistance to Polish Ladies]. Nakładem Wydawnictwa „Krytyki” [Printed by „Krytyka” Publishers], Kraków 1903, pp. 22-23.
14 J. Baudouin de Courtenay, W sprawie «antysemityzmu postępowego» [On so called „progressive antisemitism”]. Skład Główny w Księgarni G. Gebethnera i Spółki [The Main Warehouse of G. Gebethner and Company Bookstore], Kraków 1911, p. 43.
15 J. Baudouin de Courtenay, Autonomia Polski. Odczyt wygłoszony w sali Muzeum Techniczno-Przemysłowego w Krakowie 9 lipca 1906 roku. Nakładem Krakowskiego Oddziału Uniwersytetu Ludowego [Autonomy of Poland. Lecture presented in the hall of Technological-Industrial Museum in Cracow on July 9, 1906. Printed by Cracow Division of People’s University], Kraków 1907, pp. 20-21.
16 J. Baudouin de Courtenay, „Państwowość polska a Żydzi w Polsce” [Polish statehood and Jews in Poland], in: J. N. Baudouin de Courtenay, Dzieła wybrane [Selected works], vol. VI, PWN, Warszawa 1983, p. 177.
17 J. Baudouin de Courtenay, „«Nie sprzeciwiać się złu»” [„Not repudiating evil”], Głos Poznański, year IV, 25th December 1924, no. 37, p. 2.
18 J. Baudouin de Courtenay, W kwestii narodowościowej [On the national question]. Nakładem Księgarni F. Hoesicka [Printed by F. Hoesick’s Bookstore], Warszawa 1926, p. 17.
19 J. Baudouin de Courtenay, „Śladami Rosji carskiej” [In the footsteps of czarist Russia], Życie Wolne, year I, Warszawa 1927, no. 2, p. 8. 20 Ibidem.
21 Ibidem, pp. 8-9.
22 J. Kulczycka-Saloni, „Jan Baudouin de Courtenay, profesor Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego, kandydat na pierwszego przezydenta Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej” [Jan Baudouin de Courtenay, professor of the University of Warsaw, candidate for the fi rst president of the Republic of Poland], Przegląd Humanistyczny [Humanistic Review], year XXII, Warszawa 1978, no. 11 (158), pp. 65-77.
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